我們之前介紹過了英文段落 (paragraph) 的寫作，今天將進入整篇英文短文 (essay) 的寫作。英文短文的組織結構邏輯及其順序與段落非常相似，但一篇短文是由數個段落所組成，其篇幅更長、包含的資訊量更多，每個重點都可以分別用一個段落作論述。
短文 (essay) 是表達寫作者對於一個主題的想法的一群段落，一個短文通常包含三大部分：開頭 (introduction)、正文 (body)、結論 (conclusion)。開頭介紹短文的主題與主旨，正文發展此一主題，結論則為此文作總結。不同類型的短文依其特性寫法有所不同，筆者在此僅是介紹一般性的分析型英文短文寫法。
筆者今天將先介紹一篇短文的第一部分：開頭 (introduction)。
一篇短文的開頭 (introduction) 的定位相當於一個段落的主題句 (topic sentence)，一個段落中的主題句用以指出該段落的主題與主旨，一篇短文的開頭則用以指出全文的主題與主旨。
開頭 (Introduction) 通常是一篇短文的第一段，介紹短文的主題與主旨，並指示出全文組織結構的發展，讓讀者對於該短文有基本的了解。一個開頭段落通常包含四個部分：開場白 (lead-in)、背景資訊 (background information)、主旨陳述 (thesis statement)、短文地圖 (essay map)。
開場白 (lead-in)：一篇文章的第一句話將給讀者第一印象並設立文章的基調，因此須要特別留意與思考。開頭的段落一開始通常會使用一個開場白 (lead-in)，常見的開場白包含事實的陳述、個人的經驗、動人的描述、生動的類比、有趣的現象、軼聞趣事、矛盾的論述、常見的迷思、大膽的宣稱、知名的引言、發人省思的問題、驚人的統計數據或事實等。有趣的開場白又稱為釣鉤 (hook)，像是釣魚上鉤一般吸引讀者的注意與興趣，讓讀者會想要繼續讀下去。我們來看幾個開頭段落的範例：(筆者將開場白的部分用 ｛ ｝作標示，主旨陳述用 [ ] 作標示)
1. 軼聞趣事：｛One day, a few miles off the southern coast of Iceland, the crew of a fishing boat notices smoke on the horizon. Thinking that another fishing boat was on fire, they went to investigate. When they got closer, they discovered that the smoke was not from a boat on fire; rather, it was from an undersea volcano about to erupt. The next day, ash, cinders, and pumice were blown 1,000 feet into the air. The fishermen had witnessed a rare event — the violent birth of an island. The volcano continued to erupt for about four years, eventually creating an island about 1 square mile in area and 560 feet in height.｝ [The birth of Surtsey, as the island is named, offered scientists an extraordinary opportunity to learn how life takes hold on a sterile landmass.]
說明：這個範例使用火山噴發而形成一個島嶼的軼聞趣事作釣鉤，接著主旨陳述指出本文將藉此探討一塊貧脊的陸地上如何產生生命。
2. 驚人的事實：｛Got high blood pressure? Try a truffle. Worried about heart disease? Buy a bon-bon. It’s the best news in years! Studies in two prestigious scientific journals say dark chocolate is good for you. It seems that eating a small piece of dark chocolate regularly can reduce the risk of heart disease because dark chocolate — but not milk chocolate or white chocolate — contains high amounts of flavonoids, powerful cholesterol-fighting compounds. What is the next healthy food going to be? Ice cream? Sugar cookies?｝[ There are so many conflicting news stories about which foods are good for you that it is often difficult to make the right choices at the supermarket.]
說明：這個範例使用驚人的事實作釣鉤，因為一般人可能認為巧克力有害身體健康，這個範例指出吃黑巧克力可以減低心臟疾病的風險，打破了一般人的想法，進而讓人思考那些食物是真的有益身體健康。
若文章的主題本身就很吸引人，或是文章風格很正式(如學術論文)、篇幅很短，也可以省略開場白而直接切入文章的主題與主旨。
背景資訊 (background information)：在開場白以後，通常會提供主題相關的背景資訊，以讓讀者對於此一領域的背景與概念有基本的了解，並了解文章主題在該領域中的定位。背景資訊可能包含歷史地理背景、社會背景、過去與現在的狀況、相關討論的簡述、相關理論與研究的簡摘、關鍵字詞的定義等。在開頭段落的背景資訊只需提及重點即可，其細節、證據、解釋等可以留到正文再作詳細解釋與討論。背景資訊的寫法通常會從該主題較廣泛、概括性的背景資訊與大概念逐漸聚焦與限縮，有邏輯地進展連接到一個具體而明確的論點，也就是主旨陳述 (thesis statement)。我們來看幾個開頭段落的範例：(筆者將背景資訊的部分用 ｛ ｝作標示，主旨陳述用 [ ] 作標示)
1. ｛The ability to communicate effectively and compassionately is a key skill within nursing. Communication is about more than being able to speak confidently and clearly, it is about effective listening (Singh, 2019), the use of gesture, body language and tone (Adebe et al., 2016) and the ability to tailor language and messaging to particular situations (Smith & Jones, 2015).｝ [This essay will explore the importance of non-verbal communication.]
說明：這個範例先廣泛地指出溝通有自信清楚的說、有效聆聽、使用肢體語言、依特定情況調適語言等許多面向的背景資訊，接著再聚焦限縮到本文將討論的非口語溝通的特定面向。
2. ｛The middle school years (grade 6, 7, and 8 ) are known to be the “tough years.” These are the years when the different rates of girls’ and boys’ physical, emotional, and cognitive development are most noticeable. Girls develop ahead of boys in every area, and both suffer. Educators debate whether separating boys and girls into single-sex classes might improve students’ academic performance. Single-sex classes were aginst the law in public schools until several years ago, but now they have become more common (Bonner and Hollingsworth).｝ [Although some parents, educators, and civil liberties groups continue to oppose single-sex classes, there is some evidence that separating boys and girls in middle school produces positive results.]
說明：這個範例的背景資訊先作一個廣泛的陳述，指出中學是人生不容易的幾年，接著進一步指出此時期男女有著很不同的身心發展而造成問題。接著具體指出本文主題「單一性別教室」的討論與狀況的改變。在最後的主旨陳述中寫作者表明他對於單一性別教室正面的立場。
3. ｛Moving to a new country can be an exciting, even exhilarating experience. In a new environment, you somehow feel more alive. Seeing new sights, eating new food, hearing the foreign sound of a new language, and feeling a different climate against your skin stimulate your senses as never before. Soon, however, this sensory bombardment becomes sensory overload. Suddenly, new experiences seem stressful rather than stimulating, and delight turns into discomfort. This is the phenomenon known as culture shock. Culture shock is more than jet lag or homesickness, and it affects nearly everyone who enters a new culture — tourists, business travelers, diplomats, and students alike.｝ [Although not everyone experiences culture shock in exactly the same way, many experts agree that it has roughly five stages.]
說明：這個範例的背景資訊先陳述到一個新的國家生活可能有的狀況與感受，接著描述與解釋過量的感受刺激所造成的文化衝擊。最後其主旨陳述進一步指出文化衝擊大約又分為五個階段。
4. ｛In the 1950s African Americans demanded the right to sit anywhere they pleased on public buses. Today, Americans who use wheelchairs are fighting for the right to board those same buses. Here in Smallville, the lack of proper boarding facilities often denies disabled citizens basic transportation to jobs, grocery stores, and medical centers. ｝[To give people in wheelchairs the same opportunities as other residents, the City Council should allocate the funds necessary to convert the public transportation system.]
說明：這個範例的背景資訊先對比過去美國黑人與現在坐輪椅者搭乘巴士權益的狀況，接著進一步指出在 Smallville 這個地方，設備的缺乏影響了坐輪椅者交通運輸的權益。最後在主旨陳述中寫作者認為市議會應該撥預算來改善大眾交通運輸系統來保障坐輪椅者的權益。
從以上的範例，我們都可以看到背景資訊的寫法從該主題較廣泛、概括性的背景資訊與大概念逐漸聚焦與限縮到具體而明確的主旨陳述 (thesis statement)
主旨陳述 (thesis statement) 在一篇短文中的定位相當於主題句 (topic sentence) 在段落中的定位，只是將其範圍擴大到整篇短文，主旨陳述是開頭段落中最重要的句子，也是整篇短文的關鍵句，通常會在開頭段落的最後。主旨陳述 (thesis statement) 具體指出全文的主旨與目的，並預示與引導全文的論述與發展方向。主旨陳述通常包含全文具體的主題 (topic) 與主題論述 (controlling idea)，主題論述也就是寫作者對於該主題所持有的特定觀點的論述。我們來看幾個主旨陳述的範例：(筆者將主題用 ｛ ｝作標示，主題論述用 [ ] 作標示)
1. ｛A role model｝ [inspires people to do their best].
2. ｛Student use of cellphones in schools｝ [should be prohibited].
3. Although some parents and educators oppose same-sex classes, there is some evidence that ｛seperating boys and girls in middle school ｝[yields positive results], particularly in improved learner self-confident and decreased classroom discrimination.
寫作主旨陳述 (thesis statement) 須注意其論點要具體、立場與態度要清楚、且只專注討論一個議題。主旨陳述中的議題須值得且可以討論，寫作者的觀點須要透過證據來支持並解釋，不能只是陳述一個眾所皆知的事實，這樣沒有什麼討論的意義。其他注意事項如同段落寫作中的主題句 (topic sentence)，可參見筆者英文段落寫作的文章中的說明解釋。 (https://bit.ly/3AIt5H9) 。
短文地圖 (essay map)：一個開頭段落 (introduction) 除了開場白 (lead-in)、背景資訊 (background information)、主旨陳述 (thesis statement) 之外，在最後也常使用短文地圖 (essay map)。短文地圖是一個簡短的陳述來讓讀者知道正文將討論的內容重點與路線，通常會接在主旨 (thesis statement) 之後，如：
Thesis statement: The Study Skills Center is an excellent place for first-year students to receive help with basic courses.
Essay map: The Center’s numerous free services, well-trained tutors, and variety of supplementary learning materials can often mean the difference between academic success and failure for many students.
從這個範例的短文地圖，讀者可以知道此文的正文將會分別討論 free services, tutors, learning materials 等重點。
短文地圖也可以直接融入在主旨的陳述中，如：
Thesis statement: The main problems facing this nation are a lack of job opportunities, government corruption, and inadequate university programs for students with limited incomes.
從這個範例的短文地圖，讀者可以知道此文的正文將會依序討論 a lack of job opportunities, government corruption, inadequate university programs for students with limited incomes 等重點。
又如：
Thesis statement: Although some parents and educators oppose same-sex classes, there is some evidence that seperating boys and girls in middle school yields positive results, particularly in improved learner self-confident and decreased classroom discrimination.
從這個範例的短文地圖，讀者可以知道此文的正文將依序討論 improved learner self-confident 和 decreased classroom discrimination 等重點。
一篇短文中未必須包含短文地圖，須視情況使用。若短文的篇幅不長、組織結構本身就很明顯自然，則不須使用短文地圖。
到這邊我們學完了開頭段落 (introduction) 四元素的寫法：開場白 (lead-in)、背景資訊 (background information)、主旨陳述 (thesis statement)、短文地圖 (essay map)。最後我們再來看幾個開頭段落的範例以更熟悉開頭段落的寫法。
範例一：
Lead-in: A report from Public Health Center in 2021 states that over 70% of nurses suffered from physical and mental illness in the United States.
說明：這裡使用了一個驚人的數據作為開場白，讓讀者意識到護士工作危害的嚴重性，吸引讀者想繼續讀下去以進一步了解詳情。
Background information: While patient safety has long been a nursing priority, the occupational safety of nurses has only recently received serious attention. These occupational health hazards include the risk of back injuries, stress, and the dangers of radiation and infection. Apart from these kinds of risks, hospitals were thought to be safe places to work.
說明：這段背景資訊的陳述首先從病患的安全與護士的安全作對比，指出在醫院中護士的安全較晚受到關注。接著更具體地指出護士工作危險包含背部受傷、壓力、輻射、感染等。
Thesis statement: This paper argues that violence against nurses is a serious problem for hospitals and thus a serious occupational hazard.
說明：接著在主旨陳述指出本文認為護士工作的危險是個嚴重的問題。
Essay map: It reviews the literature on the incidence of violence and the effects of violence on nurses, and suggests strategies to manage violent situations.
說明：接著在文章的路線圖中說明本文將先回顧有關護士工作危險事件與影響的文獻，再提議一些管理這些危險情況的策略。
範例二：
Lead in: The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.
說明：開場白作了一個大膽的宣稱指出 Braille 在殘疾歷史中的重要性。
Background information: The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use.
說明：介紹 Braille 的定義並勾勒其歷史與社會背景。
Thesis statement: As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness.
說明：主旨陳述指出 Braille 的開創性與意義。
Essay map: This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.
說明：路線圖依序指出本文將討論的內容重點。
最後我們來看一篇完整的短文範例 (包含開頭、正文、結論)，進一步了解整篇短文的概念與寫法：
Background information: Although they were invented almost a hundred years ago, for decades cars were only owned by the rich. Since the 60s and 70s they have become increasingly affordable, and now most families in developed nations, and a growing number in developing countries, own a car.
說明：介紹汽車的歷史背景，過去到現在的擁有汽車的狀況。
Thesis statement: While cars have undoubted advantages, of which their convenience is the most apparent, they have significant drawbacks, most notably pollution and traffic problems.
說明：主旨陳述將討論的議題聚焦到汽車的優缺點，並暗示出後文的路線將依序討論汽車的方便性、汙染、與交通問題等重點。
Body 1: The most striking advantage of the car is its convenience. When traveling long distances, there may be only one choice of bus or train per day, which may be at an unsuitable time. The car, however, allows people to travel at any time they wish, and to almost any destination they choose.
Body 2: Despite this advantage, cars have many significant disadvantages, the most important of which is the pollution they cause. Almost all cars run either on petrol or diesel fuel, both of which are fossil fuels. Burning these fuels causes the car to emit serious pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. Not only are these gasses harmful for health, causing respiratory disease and other illnesses, they also contribute to global warming, an increasing problem in the modern world. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists (2013), transportation in the US accounts for 30% of all carbon dioxide production in that country, with 60% of these emissions coming from cars and small trucks. In short, pollution is a major drawback of cars.
Body 3: A further disadvantage is the traffic problems that they cause in many cities and towns of the world. While car ownership is increasing in almost all countries of the world, especially in developing countries, the amount of available roadway in cities is not increasing at an equal pace. This can lead to traffic congestion, in particular during the morning and evening rush hour. In some cities, this congestion can be severe, and delays of several hours can be a common occurrence. Such congestion can also affect those people who travel out of cities at the weekend. Spending hours sitting in an idle car means that this form of transport can in fact be less convenient than trains or planes or other forms of public transport.
Conclusion: In conclusion, while the car is advantageous for its convenience, it has some important disadvantages, in particular the pollution it causes and the rise of traffic jams. If countries can invest in the development of technology for green fuels, and if car owners can think of alternatives such as car sharing, then some of these problems can be lessened.
學完短文的開頭 (introduction)，小編日後再來整理撰寫正文 (body) 與結論 (conclusion) 的寫法，以學會整篇短文的寫作，敬請期待！
References: References: Longman Academic Writing Series, Great Writing, Steps to Writing Well
https://peachyessay.com/blogs/how-to-structure-essay/
