短文 (essay) 是表達寫作者對於一個主題的想法的一群段落，一篇短文通常包含三大部分：開頭 (introduction)、正文 (body)、結論 (conclusion)。
今天筆者將介紹短文的第三部分：結論 (conclusion)。
本文將分為三大部分進行介紹：結論的基本概念、結論的常見元素、結論的範例分析。
結論的基本概念：
結論 (conclusion) 之於一篇短文的定位就像是結論句之於一個段落，一個段落的結論句 (concluding sentence) 為一個段落作結，一篇短文的結論則為整篇短文作結，惟一篇短文中通常會有結論但一個段落中則未必須有結論句。
結論是一篇短文的最後一個段落 (在較長的文章中可能超過一個段落)，標示著文章的完成與結束，提醒讀者文章的主旨、重點與其重要性，並表達寫作者對於此一主題總結性的看法與想法。一篇文章的結論幫助讀者複習全文的整體概念、加強主旨的力量，強而有力的結論能讓讀者對於一篇文章留下深刻的印象。文章的結論 (conclusion) 與開頭 (introduction) 都是點出文章主旨的地方，但開頭與結論的寫法相反，開頭的寫法是從廣泛 (general) 到具體 (specific)，結論則是從具體到廣泛。
結論的常見元素：
在結論的開頭，有許多轉承詞可以使用來標示結論的段落，如：in conclusion, to summarize, in summary, to sum up, from the information given, as shown in this essay, on the whole, on a final note, given all the factors we have discussed ……。但一般讀者看到文章的最後一段都知道是結論，因此在較短的文章中，這些轉承詞並非必要，反而可能顯得多餘，且某些轉承詞因為被過度使用而顯得生硬、老套、呆版。與其使用這些轉承詞，我們可以在結論的開頭直接重申主旨，讀者就會知道寫作者開始在為文章做結論了，關於更多轉承詞的使用，請參考筆者之前的文章 (https://bit.ly/3mQuhD6)。
結論的元素通常包含重申主旨、複習並串聯全文的重點與脈絡、表明並強調文章主題與主旨的重要性、做結語。
(Conclusion: restate the thesis + review and synthesize the main points + show why it matters + make a concluding sentence)
這是比較完整的一般性結論的寫法，而不同類型與篇幅的文章依其狀況、需求、側重之處，寫法可能有所不同，或僅包含其中的部分元素、或這些元素的使用有不同的順序。以下將對於結論的這些元素分別進行說明介紹：
重申主旨 (restate the thesis)：我們通常在結論的一開始會重申全文的主旨，以提醒讀者這篇文章最主要的論點與目的。須避免只是重複開頭的主旨陳述 (thesis statement)，短文經過了正文的發展，有了更多的資訊和說明，讀者讀到結論的時候也已經對於文章的內容有一定的了解，在結論可以更進一步，更深入、具體、詳細地改述 (paraphrase) 主旨陳述，展現出更深刻的理解與見解。
例如：
Thesis statement (introduction): As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness.
說明：在開頭的主旨陳述指出 Braille 是第一個為了盲人設計的書寫系統，它不但幫助盲人書寫，也改變了盲人的文化地位。
Restate the thesis (conclusion): Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them.
說明：在結論的重申主旨更強調 Braille 造成的文化改變，更具體指出了它改變了人們對待盲人的方式並給予了盲人更多的機會。
又例如：
Thesis statement (introduction): There are three classes at school that I absolutely can’t wait to go to every day.
說明：在開頭的主旨陳述指出作者有三門迫不及待想上的課。
Restate the thesis (conclusion): Gym, Math, and Art are the three classes I try to never miss.
說明：在結論的重申主旨則具體指出了這三門作者不想錯過的課分別是健身課、數學課、藝術課。
複習並串聯全文的重點與脈絡 (review and synthesize the main points): 我們提供讀者全文的重點摘要，以提醒讀者全文所包含的重點，並展現這些重點是如何支持文章的主旨，加強文章主旨的說服力，此一步驟在篇幅較長的文章尤其重要，以幫助讀者整理複習、清楚記得文章的重點。我們可以回頭看文章正文 (body) 各個段落的主題句來簡摘全文的重點，並依照整篇文章發展的主軸與結構框架串連這些重點，將這些重點之間的邏輯關係與連結說明清楚，以顯示整篇文章是如何帶到主旨陳述，讓讀者能理解文章整體的概念。
例如：
Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness.
說明：在此簡要地複習與串聯正文的重點與脈絡，介紹 Braille 的創新在於從盲人的角度設計閱讀系統，說明它設計與運作的理念是要有視力的教師體會盲人的狀況，因此改變了盲人的社會地位。這段文字的邏輯與文意進行非常連貫流暢。
表明文章主題與主旨的重要性與意義 (Show why it matters): 我們可以將文章的主題與主旨帶到更寬廣遠大的視野、議題、討論範疇、背景脈絡 (如社會、歷史、科學等)，以提高文章的層次、擴大文章的格局，讓讀者產生不同的新觀點與更多的思考，並顯出此篇文章在更大的領域背景中的定位與所具有的意義與價值，例如對於此一主題獨到的新見解、創新的方法等。另外也可以將文章的主題與主旨與實際的生活情境做連結，說明其在實際生活中的用處與應用，讓讀者感到切身相關且有用。透過這些方式來顯示出文章主題與主旨的影響、重要性、意義、價值，對其進行說明與反思，以回答 “So what?” 的問題，讓讀者了解到其重要性。
例如：
New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.
說明：在此指出新的無障礙工具具有的影響、重要性、與意義，它不但能實際幫助殘障人士的生活，也能改變一般人看待殘障人士的眼光與態度，將無障礙工具帶到更大的社會文化影響的層面。
做結語 (make a closing sentence)：最後的結語對應到開頭 (introduction) 的開場白 (lead-in)，開頭中的開場白將讀者帶入我們的文章中，結論中的結語則將讀者從我們的文章帶回現實世界。 我們可以在最後進一步表達我們對於文章主題與主旨總結性的看法、想法、或評論 (final comment or thought)，以強調此一主題的重要性與意義。它可以是對於此一主題新的理解、做預測、指出可能的結果、建議解決方法或呼籲行動 、引用相關的知名引言或權威專家的說法、呼應開頭 、提出引人深思的問題、未來的期許、有待進一步討論或研究的問題與方向等。但也不能流於空泛的漫談，需要有具體的背景脈絡與清楚的邏輯思考。最後強而有力地作結，讓讀者留下深刻的印象，會想要繼續思考此一議題。
例如：
As technology for the disabled advances, our society may go one step further to equity in the near future.
說明：作者在最後的結語指出對於 Braille 總結性的想法與看法，從 Braille 的使用現況與影響對無障礙工具的未來發展做預測，認為科技的發展將促進社會的公平，帶到了更大的社會議題作結，讓讀者對於此一議題有進一步的思考。
結語有很多種寫作策略，我們可以依照文章的主題、類型、需求、目的來選擇適合的寫作策略，以下分別舉例說明常見的策略供參考：(筆者以 ｛ ｝標示範例中使用該策略的關鍵句子)
做預測 (make a prediction)：我們可以思考與推論未來可能的發展與影響，以顯出文章主旨的重要性，也讓讀者進行思考，像是「如果我們沒有採取行動來對抗全球暖化，二十年後地球與我們的生活將會變成怎麼樣？」做預測的策略常用在問題解決或是現象觀察的的文章，且常使用 When 或 If 開頭的句子來對未來做預測。
例如：
We have seen how the costs of attending college have been rising while, at the same time, sources of financial aid for students have been disappearing. ｛If this trend continues, fewer and fewer families will be able to send their children through four years of college.｝
指出可能的結果 (suggest results or consequences)：指出可能的結果來告誡讀者，顯出改變的急迫性。
例如：
To sum up, the costs of attending college are up and financial aid for students is down. Fewer and fewer future members of the workforce are able to educate themselves beyond high school. ｛As a result, the nation will waste the intelligence, imagination, and energy of a large segment of the present college-age generation.｝
建議解決方法或呼籲行動 (recommend a solution or a call for action)：建議解決方法或呼籲行動常用在論說文，特別是討論如何應付一個大議題，以呼籲讀者採取實際行動來改善現況，實際解決特定的問題。
例如：
It is clear that the U.S. system of higher education is in trouble. For many students, completing four years of college is no longer possible because of increasing costs and decreasing financial aid. ｛To reverse this trend, we must demand that the government increase its financial support of colleges and universities and restore financial aid programs. Our future depends on it.｝
引用相關的知名引言或權威專家的說法 (quote an authority on the topic)：引用相關的知名引言或權威專家的說法可以增強文章的論點，或以不同的角度來檢視文章的論點。
例如：
In conclusion, costs are rising and financial aid is declining, with the result that many can no longer afford to go to college. If our nation is to prosper, increased government funding for education is essential, even if it requires higher taxes. ｛As Horace Mann argued in his Fifth Annual Report, a nation’s economic wealth will increase through an educated public.｝ It is therefore in the self-interest of business to pay the taxation for public education.
呼應開頭 (echo)：在結論 (conclusion) 使用與開頭 (introduction) 相同的陳述或情境做連結，並以文章內容發展詮釋所帶出的新見解做進一步的說明，讓文章產生前後呼應的效果，引發讀者的思考，讓讀者對於文章的主旨有更深刻的了解而印象深刻，有種完整結束的感覺。我們若是在開頭問了一個問題，在結論可以給出這個問題的答案；我們若是在開頭講了一個故事的開始，在結論可以講出這個故事的結局；我們若在開頭引用了一段話，在結論可以說明對於這段話更深刻的理解；我們若在開頭舉了一個例子，在結論可以進一步說明這個例子。
例如：
Introduction: I believe that all children should grow up with a pet. ｛I still remember the exact day my parents brought my first puppy to our house. This was one of the happiest moments in my life and, at the same time, one of the most life-changing ones.｝ Growing up with a pet taught me a lot, and most importantly, it taught me to be responsible.
Conclusion: ｛I remember when I picked up my first puppy and how happy I was at that time.｝ Growing up with a pet, I learned what it means to take care of someone, make sure that he always has water and food, teach him, and constantly keep an eye on my little companion. Having a child grow up with a pet teaches them responsibility and helps them acquire a variety of other life skills like leadership, love, compassion, and empathy. This is why I believe that every kid should grow up with a pet!
又如：
Intro Hook: Mark Zuckerberg faced US congress in late 2018 to defend Facebook’s record of regulating Facebook News. He claimed that Facebook needs to do a better job of verifying the identities of Facebook users.
Close the Loop in the Conclusion: ｛This essay began by noting that Mark Zuckerberg accepts that Facebook needs to do a better job at regulation on the platform.｝ As this essay has shown, it appears Facebook continues to be incapable of regulating content on its platform. Therefore, governments should step-in with minimum benchmarks for Facebook to adhere to for all advertising and news content.
提出引人深思的問題 (Ask rhetorical questions) : 指出從文章中產生的一些重要問題，讓讀者可以進一步繼續思考與討論。
例如：
No one wants to see hostages put in danger. But what nation can afford to let terrorists know they can get away with blackmail?
又如：
What could be more beneficial than being raised bilingual?
此外，寫作結論需要特別留意的是，結論主要做的事是總結全文的主旨與重點，因此不適合再加入新的論點、證據、分析等，那是正文 (Body) 該做的事，若在寫作結論時想到了新的資訊，請將它移到正文的部分。結論須專注在主旨與整體的主要重點，也需避免專注在次要的內容、包含不重要或是偏離主題的內容。
結論的範例分析：
以下將分析三篇結論的範例，並將這些範例分別以上述結論的各元素分開做說明，以清楚呈現並說明這些結論範例的結構。
1. 重申主旨：The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education.
說明：重申網路對於教育有正面影響的主旨。
2. 複習並串聯全文的重點與脈絡：Occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity.
說明：複習網路在可能教育的應用包含溝通、研究、互動。
3. 表明文章主題與主旨的重要性與意義： As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages.
說明：指出隨著遠距教學盛行，數位教育有著彈性與易達性的價值與重要性。
4. 結語 (呼籲行動)：The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.
說明：最後提及網路的危險已被詳盡地記載，並呼籲讀者是時候認真關注網路好的潛力。
1. 重申主旨： Clearly, Shakespeare’s Macbeth is a tragedy primarily focused on the consequences of guilt on those who discard their morality in the pursuit of power.
說明：重申馬克白是一齣關於為了追求權力而摒棄道德而產生罪惡感的悲劇。
2. 複習並串聯全文的重點與脈絡：Macbeth’s act of regicide was driven by a desire for power, but his madness is caused by awareness of his guilt and expectation of revenge. The irony of Macbeth’s experience is that by discarding morality for power, he is haunted to the point of paranoia by his guilt.
說明：複習全文的重點與脈絡，包含馬克白為了權力而弒君，因為罪惡感與復仇的期望而惱怒，卻也因為不道德的行為而被罪惡感所困擾。
3. 表明文章主題與主旨的重要性與意義：Macbeth‘s lasting relevance lies in its representation of the peril of discarding one’s humanity and morality for the pursuit of absolute power or wealth.
說明：指出馬克白這齣劇的重要性與意義在於反映人性的道德掙扎。
4. 結語 (提出引人深思的問題)：Regarding power, wealth, and morality, do modern people behave better than Macbeth?
說明：使用一個問題反思當代人是否同樣面臨著這樣人性的考驗。
1. 重申主旨： There are diverse and sometimes contradictory explanations for why some students succeed where others fail, suggesting that academic success cannot be attributed to a single factor alone. Rather, it seems probable that a complex mix of factors account for successful academic performance.
說明：在結論的一開始重申文章的主旨，影響學業成功的因素是複雜混合的。
2. 複習並串聯全文的重點與脈絡：These include the policies and practices of the university itself, such as the provision of quality teaching practices, the physical environment of the institution and the availability of appropriate and accessible student support services. Also important however are individual difference factors related to the student, with evidence suggesting that students who take control of and accept responsibility for their academic performance, and actively seek ways to think and learn effectively and stay motivated and engaged, may well have the edge when it comes to success at university.
說明：接著摘要並串聯全文的重點，以支持文章的主旨陳述。作者在此指出影響學生學業成功的因素包含學校機構 (政策、環境、服務) 與個人 (責任感、主動積極) 的因素。
3. 表明文章主題與主旨的重要性與意義： Understanding the complex interplay of factors that impact academic performance can empower higher education providers to foster an environment, both at the institutional and individual level, that promotes and enables success.
說明：作者在此表明了解這些因素的重要性，因為了解了這些因素，教育提供者可以對症下藥，針對這些因素進行調整改善，以提高學生的學業表現、促進學生的學業成功。
4. 結語 (做預測)：If higher education providers can deal effectively with this issue, students may be more confidence, enjoy their university life, and have more successful careers in the future.
說明：在此說明若改善這些影響學生學業表現的因素，可能對於學生未來生涯所造成的影響。
References: Longman Academic Writing Series, Great Writing, Steps to Writing Well
https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/....../ending......
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conclusion/
https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/conclusion/
https://www.masterclass.com/....../how-to-write-a......
